Breaking the Silence: Stigma, Community Norms, and Social Welfare Responses to Child Sexual Abuse in Zanzibar
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.22373/jsai.v7i1.9407Keywords:
Child Sexual Abuse, Stigma, Community Attitudes, Social Welfare Response, ZanzibarAbstract
Child sexual abuse (CSA) remains a critical social welfare concern in Zanzibar, where disclosure and help seeking are shaped by community norms, stigma, and institutional trust. This study synthesizes secondary sources through qualitative thematic document analysis of peer reviewed literature and policy or organizational reports (2020 to 2025) identified via a structured search and screened for relevance to sociocultural and institutional determinants of reporting and response. The analysis highlights five recurring patterns: (1) disclosure is constrained by collectivist norms that prioritize family reputation and social harmony; (2) victim blaming and gendered expectations intensify stigma and silence; (3) cultural authority and household hierarchies discourage reporting when perpetrators hold status; (4) institutional barriers, including staffing shortages, fragmented referrals, and procedural delays, reduce confidence in formal pathways; and (5) community engagement and integrated service initiatives, including One Stop Centers, show promise but remain unevenly implemented. Using ecological systems thinking and labeling processes, the study argues that silence is reproduced through interactions across community norms, family decision making, and service systems. The paper concludes by recommending culturally grounded, multi-level interventions that strengthen trusted reporting pathways while reducing stigma through community leadership engagement.
References
Albornoz, M. T. R., and M. S. L. Latorre. 2025. “Experiences of Non-Offending Parental Figures in the Interaction with Psychosocial-Legal Intervention Programs for Child Victims of Sexual Abuse and Their Families.” Limite (Chile) 20. doi: 10.4067/s0718-50652025000100209.
Ali, S., S. A. Pasha, A. Cox, and E. Youssef. 2024. “Examining the Short and Long-Term Impacts of Child Sexual Abuse: A Review Study.” SN Social Sciences 4(2). doi: 10.1007/s43545-024-00852-6.
Amo-Adjei, J., A. Deliege, A. Nurzhynska, R. Essuman, and M. R. Khan. 2023. “A Vignettes-Based Exploration of Attitudes of Parents Toward Reporting of Child Sexual Abuse in Ghana.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 38(7–8):6138–66. doi: 10.1177/08862605221127215.
Birdsall, N., S. Kirby, and R. Phythian. 2022. “Cooperative Actors in Domestic Abuse and Their Association with Prosecution: Implications for the Criminal Justice System.” Police Journal 95(2):391–406. doi: 10.1177/0032258X20931922.
Blessing Osaiyuwu, Abiodun. 2024. “Exploring the Challenges of Child Protection in Nigeria.” Pp. 107–17 in Routledge Handbook of African Social Work Education. London: Routledge.
Block, Stephanie D., Hannah M. Johnson, Yuerui Wu, Dana T. Hartman, and Gail S. Goodman. 2024. “Decision-Making Regarding Child Victims and Witnesses.” Pp. 290–306 in The Cambridge Handbook of Psychology and Legal Decision-Making. Cambridge University Press.
Chibango, C., and S. T. Chibango. 2022. “Prevalence and Under-Reporting of Sexual Abuse in Ruwa: A Human Rights-Based Approach.” HTS Teologiese Studies / Theological Studies 78(2). doi: 10.4102/hts.v78i2.7976.
Gemara, N., and C. Katz. 2023. “‘It Was Really Hard for Me to Tell’: The Gap between the Child’s Difficulty in Disclosing Sexual Abuse, and Their Perception of the Disclosure Recipient’s Response.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 38(1–2):NP2068–91. doi: 10.1177/08862605221099949.
Gomez, S. Y. M. 2022. “A Measure of Justice: Alternatives to Pursuing Criminal Accountability for Conflict-Related Sexual Violence in Sri Lanka.” Violence Against Women 28(8):1824–41. doi: 10.1177/10778012221086010.
Harper, C. A., C. Perkins, and D. Johnson. 2020. “Psychological Factors Influencing Religious Congregation Members’ Reporting of Alleged Sexual Abuse.” Journal of Sexual Aggression 26(1):129–44. doi: 10.1080/13552600.2019.1599453.
Hendricks, G., D. Schippers, and B. Moolman. 2025. “A Systematic Review of the Evidence on One-Stop Centre Models for Victims of Gender-Based Violence in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: Implications for Thuthuzela Care Centres in South Africa.” International Review of Victimology. doi: 10.1177/02697580251394732.
Kennedy, K. D., K. Malinen, E. MacLeod, B. VanTassel, K. O’Rourke, and C. Small Legs-Nagge. 2024. “Culturally Diverse Students’ Perspectives on Sexual Violence Policies: Recommendations for Culturally Sensitive Approaches to Prevention in Higher Education.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 39(23–24):5131–59. doi: 10.1177/08862605241245372.
Letson, M. M., and K. G. Crichton. 2023. “CASE AND COMMENTARY: PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLE How Should Clinicians Minimize Bias When Responding to Suspicions About Child Abuse?” AMA Journal of Ethics 25(2):93–99. doi: 10.1001/amajethics.2023.93.
Madray, Omattie, and Hasani Tinnie. 2025. “Child Sexual Abuse, ChildLinK, Civil Society and Communities of Practice in Collaboration with the Guyanese State.” Pp. 51–65 in Public Policy Making, Gender, and Human Security in the Caribbean. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland.
McGill, L., and R. McElvaney. 2023. “Adult and Adolescent Disclosures of Child Sexual Abuse: A Comparative Analysis.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 38(1–2):NP1163–86. doi: 10.1177/08862605221088278.
Mensah, F., A. Abdullah, and E. Cudjoe. 2024. “Unpacking Norms Shaping Disclosure of Intrafamilial Child Sexual Abuse.” Discover Psychology 4(1). doi: 10.1007/s44202-024-00286-4.
Mihret, F., B. A. Tegegne, M. Belayneh, D. S. Asmare, Y. Wasihun, and M. M. Agidew. 2025. “Prevalence and Associated Factors of Childhood Sexual Abuse in Gashena Town, Ethiopia: A School-Based Cross-Sectional Analysis.” Child Abuse and Neglect 167. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2025.107615.
Muridzo, N. G., and V. Chikadzi. 2020. “Some Impediments to Child Sexual Abuse Interventions and Corresponding Social Work Implications: Reflections on the Zimbabwean Victim Friendly System.” Journal of Human Rights and Social Work 5(4):257–66. doi: 10.1007/s41134-020-00137-x.
Ohayi, S. R., S. G. Mba, and M. S. Ezeme. 2022. “An Analysis of Child Sexual Abuse Seen in a Teaching Hospital of a Developing Country.” Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences 12(1). doi: 10.1186/s41935-022-00305-2.
Okah, P. S. 2025. “Prevalence and Underreporting of Child Sexual Abuse in Nigeria: Implications for the Well-Being of Children.” Journal of Human Rights and Social Work. doi: 10.1007/s41134-025-00412-9.
Orchowski, L. M., L. Grocott, K. W. Bogen, A. Ilegbusi, A. B. Amstadter, and N. R. Nugent. 2022. “Barriers to Reporting Sexual Violence: A Qualitative Analysis of #WhyIDidntReport.” Violence Against Women 28(14):3530–53. doi: 10.1177/10778012221092479.
Petherick, Wayne. 2020. “Recantations and Retractions in Child Sexual Abuse.” Pp. 435–43 in Child Sexual Abuse. Elsevier.
Priyadarshini, Anonza. 2025. “Dissecting the Conundrum of Mandatory Reporting and Pocso, 2012, in the Realm of Child Sexual Abuse.” Pp. 254–71 in Child Protection in India. London: Routledge.
Ramakrishna, Sathish K., Eesha Sharma, Kavitha V Jangam, and Rajendra K. M. 2025. “Gender and Personal Safety Sensitization in Schools: A Qualitative Inquiry into Response Practices to Children’s Disclosures of Sexual Abuse.” Indian Journal of Psychiatry 67(2):245–51. doi: 10.4103/indianjpsychiatry.indianjpsychiatry_543_24.
Seto, M. C., K. Roche, N. C. Rodrigues, S. Curry, and E. Letourneau. 2024. “Evaluating Child Sexual Abuse Perpetration Prevention Efforts: A Systematic Review.” Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 33(7):847–68. doi: 10.1080/10538712.2024.2356194.
Shwetha, T. S., and Pragnya Nidugonda. 2023. “Child Sexual Abuse.” Pp. 1–19 in Handbook of Research on Child and Adolescent Psychology Practices and Interventions.
Vaughan-Eden, Viola, Stacie Schrieffer LeBlanc, and Yvette Dzumaga. 2022. “Succeeding with Nonoffending Caregivers of Sexually Abused Children.” Pp. 789–808 in Handbook of Interpersonal Violence and Abuse Across the Lifespan. Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Viliardos, L., S. McAndrew, and N. Murphy. 2023. “Exploring Male Childhood Sexual Abuse Survivors’ Experiences of Specialist Counselling Services.” Counselling and Psychotherapy Research 23(1):115–24. doi: 10.1002/capr.12596.
Wallis, C. R. D., and M. D. Woodworth. 2020. “Child Sexual Abuse: An Examination of Individual and Abuse Characteristics That May Impact Delays of Disclosure.” Child Abuse and Neglect 107. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104604.
Warrington, C., H. Beckett, D. Allnock, and C. Soares. 2023. “Children’s Perspectives on Family Members’ Needs and Support after Child Sexual Abuse.” Children and Youth Services Review 149. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2023.106925.
Yu, Wenting. 2021. “News Portrayals of Child Sexual Abuse in China: Changes from 2010 to 2019.” Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 30(5):524–45. doi: 10.1080/10538712.2021.1897916.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Bakari Khatib Faki, Juma Salum Ali
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under an Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work.
